Tumors are usually of clonal origin, that is, they arise from a single cell. The monoclonality of tumors can be seen, for example, in multiple myeloma, a tumor of the plasma cells. In serum protein electrophoresis, antibodies migrate mainly in the gamma globulin fraction. Antibodies are...
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The tumor suppressor protein p53 is a transcription factor. p53 monomers assemble into tetramers that bind to consensus sequences in the DNA and activate the transcription of p53 response genes. P53 target genes are involved in the regulation of proliferation, apoptosis and genomic...
The naturally occurring retinoic acid isomers 13-cis-retinoic acid and all-trans-retinoic acid (ATRA) influence processes of morphogenesis and differentiation. The effect of retinoic acid is mediated via the retinoic acid receptors α, β and γ (RARα, RARβ, RARγ). In the absence of ligands...
The cell goes through typical stages between two cell divisions. The successive phases can be visualized as the so-called cell cycle. The cell cycle comprises two main phases, namely division, also called mitosis or M-phase, and the phase of DNA and protein synthesis, also called S-phase...
The passage of a cell through the cell cycle is regulated by various proteins. Cyclin dependent kinases (CDKs) phosphorylate several substrates such as transcription factors and cytoskeletal proteins, which leads to the transition of the cell into the next cell cycle phase. CDKs are...
